Nestle Market Research

Introduction In this research work the company chosen is Nestle. We have tried to cover the brief history of the company, vision, mission and objectives of the company. This brief history and other sub heading under company background is compulsory to be understood and researched well as they form the basis for marketing plan of the company. We have also tried to cover the internal and external environments for the company and countries for its future rowth and further marketing planning strategy Analysis 1. Nestle Worldwide 1. 1. Overview of Nestle All over the planet, people know Nestle. Nestle is a Swiss multinational nutritional and health-related consumer goods company headquartered in Vevey, Switzerland. It is the largest food company in the world measured by revenues among the world's 40 largest corporations. Nestle was founded in 1867 by Henri Nestle. Its international R;amp;D network supports the products made in more than 500 factories in 86 countries.The Nestle factories a re operating in the region of: 1. Africa 2. America 3. Asia 4. Europe 5. Oceania Being a company dedicated to food from the beginning, Nestle remains sensitive to culinary and eating habits, and responds to specific nutritional problems, whilst also setting and matching new trends such as growing out-of-home consumption and caring about the well being of its consumers Nestle’s Philosophy: Good Food, Good Life is the very essence of Nestle and this philosophy can be traced back to our beginnings. 1. 2. Nestle’s VisionThe Nestle global vision is to be the leading Company in health, wellness and nutrition in the world. In particular, they envision to: * Meet the needs of consumers of every age group from infancy to old age, for nutrition and pleasure, through development of a large variety of food categories of the highest quality. * Lead an extremely motivated and professionally trained workforce, which would drive growth through innovation and renovation. * Deliver shar eholder value through profitable long-term growth, while continuing to play a significant and responsible role in the ocial, economic and environmental sectors of the country. s * Nestle brands are the preferred choice in their categories. Consumer insight drives all aspects of Nestle’s marketing and communication efforts. 1. 3. Nestle’s Mission Nestle’s mission, in the words of our founder Henri Nestle, is: â€Å"Nestle is dedicated to providing the best foods to people throughout their day, throughout their lives, throughout the world. With our unique experience of anticipating consumers' needs and creating solutions, Nestle contributes to your well-being and enhances your quality of life. 1. 4. Nestle’s Objectives Nestle’s objectives are to be recognized as a leading, competitive, Nutrition, Health and Wellness Company trusted by all its stakeholders, and to be the reference for financial performance in its industry. Its chief objectives are: * To achieve compatibility with international voluntary standards on environmental management systems. * To build mutual trust with consumers, governmental authorities and business partners. * To ensure continuous improvement of Nestles environmental performance. Conservation of natural resources and minimization of waste. * Total compliance with the laws. * To establish the benchmark for good business practice. * Employing new technologies and processing. By committing to resources, both human and financial. Measuring the cost and benefits to business of its activities 1. 5. Product mix of Nestle Baby foods| Cerelac, Gerber, Gerber Graduates, NaturNes, Nestum| Bottled water| Nestle Pure Life, Perrier, Poland Spring, S.Pellegrino| Cereals| Chocapic, Cini Minis, Cookie Crisp, Estrelitas, Fitness, Nesquik Cereal| Chocolate & Confectionery| Aero, Butterfinger, Cailler, Crunch, Kit Kat, Orion, Smarties, Wonka| Coffee | Nescafe, Nescafe 3 in 1, Nescafe Cappuccino, Nescafe Classic, Nes cafe Decaff, Nescafe Dolce Gusto, Nescafe Gold, Nespresso| Culinary,chilled and frozen food| Buitoni, Herta, Hot Pockets, Lean Cuisine, Maggi, Stouffer's, Thomy| Dairy | Carnation, Coffee-Mate, La Laitiere, Nido| Drinks | Juicy Juice, Milo, Nesquik, Nestea|Food service| Chef, Chef-Mate, Maggi, Milo, Minor’s, Nescafe, Nestea, Sjora, Lean Cuisine, Stouffer's| Healthcare nutrition| Boost, Nutren Junior, Peptamen, Resource| Ice cream| Dreyer’s, Extreme, Haagen-Dazs, Movenpick, Nestle Ice Cream| Pet care| Alpo, Bakers Complete, Beneful, Cat Chow, Chef Michael’s Canine Creations, Dog Chow, Fancy Feast, Felix, Friskies, Gourmet, Purina, Purina ONE, Pro Plan| Sports nutrition| Power Bar| Weight management| Jenny Craig| 2. Environment of Nestle 2. 1.Internal business environment 2. 1. 1 Managers Nestle Company is a decentralized organization that organized according to matrix structure. Nestle Company as a decentralized organization allows its subordinate organizations t o enjoy a relatively high-level of autonomy. Although it still makes major strategy decisions at the headquarter level, daily operations are left up to subordinate organizations to derive and implement. The responsibility for operating decisions is pushed down to local units.Nestle has a strong top management team which runs on strong values and principles of the company. The efficient top management of the company is able to run finance, operation, marketing, logistics, sales, and research and development departments with great success which ultimately leads to the fulfillment of the goal of the organization. Senior members are of diverse origins and backgrounds. * Board of Directors The Board of Directors is the ultimate governing body of the Company. It is responsible for the ultimate supervision of the Group.The Board attends to all matters which are not reserved for the Annual General Meeting or another governance body of the Company by law, the Articles of Association or speci fic regulations issued by the Board of Directors. * Chairman The Chairman has the right to represent the organization to implement the company’s rights and obligations, take responsibility to the law and the owners of the organization about the rights and duties are assigned, strategizing development plans of the company and organization those through the decision of the Board. CEO The Board of Directors delegates to the CEO, with the authorization to sub delegate, the power to manage the Company’s and the Group are business, subject to law, the Articles of Association and the Regulations of the Board of Directors. The CEO chairs the Executive Board and delegates to its members individually the powers necessary for carrying out their responsibilities, within the limits fixed in the Executive Board’s Regulations. 2. 1. 2. EmployeesThe Nestle team comprises around 328,000 employees, 29% are based in Europe, 33. 6% in the Americas and 37. 4% in Asia, Oceania and Af rica. Their challenge is to combine strategic corporate leadership with strong, responsive local leadership to achieve consistent high levels of performance and corporate responsibility across their business Nestle has a rich working culture which motivates its employees to serve best to its customers with the help of the variety present in their product range.Nestle has included the benefits of the employees in the goal statement of the organization as the management of the company strongly believe that the productivity, quality and the dependability will reflect on the product only if the employees take care of all these factors. Different departments of the company work to contribute in the growth of the organization and these departments not only keep the customer's needs and demand in mind but also keep the same type of attention for the internal customers of Nestle.The company believes if the internal market of the company is fully satisfied, the internal market will be able t o serve to its customers and able to understand their needs and able to manufacture the products which can fulfill these needs 2. 2. External environment 2. 2. 1. Customers The immediate customers of Nestle are retail and grocery stores which provide the products of the company to the end customers at a reasonable price and a reasonable profit.The end customers of Nestle are the consumers who consume its wide range of product. The company has a bright brand image in its big pool of end customers. Nestle has an extensive marketing network to figure out the target customers, it has marketing specialist to understand the market place and the customer needs, secondly to is spending a lot to figure out the customer’s preferences regarding the substitutes of its products in order to bring the customers on board and retain them.Nestle has an extensive market share, due to the reason that its customers are brand loyal and do not compromise over quality and same is the case with the c ompany’s quality assurance (QA) team. One of the principle strategies that Nestle utilizes is to produce differentiated products for each age group in order to get a high market share and preferences over others. 2. 2. 2. Suppliers Suppliers provide the resources like labor and material resources to produce goods and services. They add to customer overall value delivery system.Labor supplies include handling of * Quantity of labor * Quality of labor * Labor strikes * Labor relations Material supplies deals with the * Quantity of material * Quality of material * Price of material * Stability of material inputs * Delivery delays Nestle efficiently handles the quality, quantity, price and stability of both material and labor supplies. Management maps out the strategies for labor strikes, supply shortages and delays to avoid increasing the cost of production, which can badly affect sales in short run and customer satisfaction in long run. . 2. 3. Competitors Competitors also play a vital role in effecting the way in which the organization operates, competitors are basically the rival firms in the same market which is providing the same product in the case of Nestle the are many competitors since there is a wide range of products offered by Nestle Nestle's largest international competitors are Kraft Foods, Unilever and Mars Incorporated. It also faces competition in local markets or specific product ranges from numerous companies, including Sara Lee and DanoneNescafe is one of the world-famous brands of Nestle with a long history of development and illustrious reputation. Therefore we choose this brand to go deeper analysis of its production as well as its distribution. 3. Input and output 3. 1. Inputs 3. 1. 1. Raw material Coffee beans and water are the basic ingredients used to make coffee, but there are as many ways to make coffee as there are coffee drinkers. All Nescafe coffees are made of 100% pure coffee beans. The only exceptions are our ready-made c offee mixes and mixtures. They contain other ingredients such as whitener and sugar, which are commonly added to coffee.Raw materials are selected from the freshest coffee beans through the production process with the highest quality standards, properly roasted to keep the aroma of coffee are naturally charming 3. 1. 2. Labor Teams of professional preparation and testing are well trained. The sensitive senses of coffee experts allow them to recognize the best qualities as grinding, roasting and tasting raw materials. 3. 1. 3. Technology The company also has modern production technology and strictly quality control system in all stages of production. 3. 2. Outputs 3. 2. 1. Nescafe’s productsNescafe products include: Nescafe Original, Nescafe Classic, Nescafe Clasico, Nescafe Gold Blend, Nescafe Black Gold, Nescafe Special Filtre (in France), Cafe Parisien (The Paris experience), Nescafe Allen, Nescafe Espresso, Nescafe Red Cup, Nescafe Blend†¦ to name just a few. 3. 2. 2. Distribution Nescafe also be distributed under Nestle’s distribution system with the 2 major channels of distribution: Traditional distribution channels and Modern distribution channels. * Traditional distribution channels (grocery): Organize the sales staff to distribute products to individual households through market channels & shop. Modern distribution channels (key account): Deliver goods to consumers through supermarket, metro or distribution chain system. Furthermore Nestle is currently holding Out Of Home (OOH) distribution channel such as restaurants, hotels, at-work, factories, etc†¦ There are specific products for this channel to cater fully for the professional chef, a full merchandise to cater to the world standard hotel as 5 star hotels or the high-rate corporate office †¦ called NESTLE PROFESSIONAL parts distribution. 3. 3. Research for production of Nescafe-Nestle in VietnamTo ensure a large output power, the company must be combined with the Vi etnamese government to build long-term plan for raw materials to ensure the production of the company. Build strategic Materials areas by combining with fertilizer companies and agricultural extension centers to sign a contract directly with farmers. Furthermore, collaborate with scientists and local authorities in the provinces of Dak Lak, Lam Dong and Dong Nai-the key coffee growing regions in Vietnam- to build the model farm, offering new varieties of high yield and send some Vietnamese scientists to some Center of research and development in developing countries.Regarding technology, the big companies like Nestle will find advanced technology in the world to ensure that few workers record the highest results. Moreover, the company will provide technical assistance to coffee growers so that they can provide better quality and have higher income About labor at the factory the company will cooperate with Vietnamese Ministry of Labor to learn about the workforce in Vietnam or the co mpany will cooperate with the local center for workers promotion or the surrounding areas to make sure human resources are available if the company needs.The company will have a separate department to do this. 4. Manufacturing process * Harvesting It all starts on the plantations, where farmers tend to the coffee plants and harvest the coffee cherries, usually by hand. The next thing they have to do is separate the bean from the outer shell of the cherry. This is done either by drying the beans in the sun or by washing them in a pulping machine before drying them. * Drying To get at the coffee beans inside each cherry, the beans need to be separated from the skin, pulpa and parchment.This is achieved by drying the cherries under the sun or by soaking the cherries in hot water. The dry beans have a greenish tinge and are therefore known as ‘green beans'. They are usually exported for blending and roasting. By combining different types of beans you can give the resulting coffee a more rounded taste. Once you have the right blend of beans, the most important phase of coffee production begins: the roasting * Roasting Once the green coffee beans have been selected, the beans need to be roasted to release the aroma and taste we know as coffee. In fact, this important rocess is one of the most fundamental parts in producing the flavorful taste and rich aroma of NESCAFE coffees. During roasting, the coffee beans expand and change in color. They turn to yellow once they absorb heat and then to brown as the beans lose their water content. The beans turn darker as they release their oils, giving the coffee its flavor. Depending on the roasting equipment and the desired flavor of the coffee, green beans are roasted at between 180 °C and 240 °C for between three and fifteen minutes. * Grinding After roasting, the beans are ready for grinding.The particle size of the grind; whether coarse or medium, fine or very fine depends on the brewing method and equipment use d. Grinding increases the surface area of the coffee, allowing the flavor to be extracted more easily. * Processing To make NESCAFE ® Pure Soluble Coffee, the ground coffee is put into an industrial percolator containing hot water under pressure to brew a highly concentrated liquid coffee, called coffee liquor. The coffee liquor is then spray dried by passing it through a continuous stream of hot air, changing it into fine particles.This is the process for making NESCAFE CLASSIC ® coffee. Alternatively, the coffee liquor is snap frozen and then ground into the required particle size. The particles are suspended in a vacuum tunnel with low heat, causing ice crystals to form and leaving particles of freeze-dried NESCAFE GOLD ® coffee. 5. Marketing strategy for Nescafe in Vietnam 5. 1. Price Launch several product lines aimed at the large and diverse segment of the market. Each segment has different product lines with reasonable price and can be accepted but still ensure high qua lity. For classes of consumers with high incomes and interested in quality: the Nescafe Gold, Premium with higher prices and higher quality compared to other common products * For classes of consumers with average incomes – a large segment: with Blend 43, Mild Roast, Espresso products †¦ consumers receive economic benefits as well as product quality. * For young people: new product such as Latte with the relative prices. Deploy promotions, discounts to attract customers and increase purchasing power 5. 2. PlaceBuild strong distribution network with distributors and retailers to cover the market with high density. Develop the retail system to ensure the company's products are available to serve customers: retail outlets at premier sites e. g. Bus stand, Railway station†¦ Implement incentive policy about pricing and commission to agents to encourage them to introduce and offer products to customers at the reasonable price. Other than that, Nestle can put their vending machine in a place that always full of people such as shopping mall, airport, hospital, school and any other place.Associate with supermarkets and shopping centers by opening sophisticated parlors with more value added services; improve the area, type and number of the company’s products here. Expand promoting trade into neighboring countries such as Laos, Cambodia, west Asia countries, where Nestle’s products are not available or do not meet the requirements. 5. 3. Promotion Take advantages of company such as brand reputation, quality products to increase market share Use mass media to advertise products to consumers: * TV commercial * Magazine and newspaper advertizing * Public event * Online advertizing Social networking Use other form of advertising such as non-media communication or advertising. Some of the ways are participating exhibitions, sponsorship activities, public relations and sales promotion such as giving freebies with good or reduced price Construct showrooms to introduce the company’s products and distribute sample products to the customers. Intensify customer care service by holding seminars about nutrition and healthiness, informing customer about Nestle’s products. References * Jafaa, M. S. (2009) Nestle Marketing strategy for Marketing Report – Nestle Milo [online].Publication 25 November 2009 [accessed 16 June 2012]. Available from: http://www. scribd. com/doc/26214574/5/Nestle-Marketing-strategy * Brabeck, P. (2011) Nestle Malaysia Marketing Strategy [online]. Publication 8 March 2011 [accessed 16 June 2012]. Available from: http://www. allfreepapers. com/print/Nestle-Malaysia-Marketing-Strategy/1020. html * Aziz, M. K. (2009) Marketing Management Strategies of Nestle [online]. Publication 20 May 2009 [accessed 18 June 2012]. Available from: http://www. scribd. com/doc/61960026/Nestle * Nescafe (2008) Coffee Production [online].Publication 18 December 2008 [accessed 19 June 2012]. Available from: htt p://www. nescafe. co. uk/coffee_production_en_co_uk. axcms * Khan, S. A. (2011) TQM 2nd Assignment on Nestle [online]. Publication 16 February 2011 [accessed 21 June 2012]. Available from: http://www. scribd. com/doc/86194068/TQM-2nd-Assignment-on-Nestle * Nestle (no date) Mission and Vision [online]. Vavey, Switzerland: Nestle [accessed 21 June 2012]. Available from: http://www. Nestle. co. za/aboutus/Pages/MissionVision. aspx * Nescafe (no date) Coffee Roasting [online]. Vavey, Switzerland: Nestle [accessed 21 June 2012].Available from: http://www. nescafe. com/coffee_roasting_en_com. axcms * Nescafe (no date) Coffee Ingredients [online]. Vavey, Switzerland: Nestle [accessed 21 June 2012]. Available from: http://www. nescafe. com/coffee_ingredients_en_com. axcms * Nestle (2011) Nescafe [online]. United Kingdom: Nestle UK [accessed 21 June 2012]. Available from: http://www. Nestle. co. uk/brands/coffee/Pages/Coffee. aspx * Nescafe (2011) Corp Governance Report 2011 [online]. Vavey, Switzerland: Nestle [accessed 23 June 2012]. Available from: http://www. Nestle. com/Media/Reports/Pages/Reports. aspx.

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Answers to Burger King questions - Case Study Example Franchising helps to increase the profitability of the business and eliminate unnecessary start up cost. The success of the fast food industry does not only depend upon the franchising method but also depends upon implementation of effective marketing strategies. To achieve global leadership in its industry a fast food restaurant needs to set a series of financial goal and strategic goals. Global leadership by a fast food restaurant can be attained if a company is adept at discovering the new market opportunities, establishing a strong presence in the international markets and securing a competitive advantage. Effective strategic planning is required for attaining profitability in the domestic and international markets. Firstly, the management of the company needs to clearly define its reasons for expanding its operation in the foreign market. A comparative analysis of the political social, cultural environment of different countries would be required for screening purposes. Critical Success Factors are strongly related to the mission and strategic goals of your business or project. ... e production process (How long the French fries must be fried?) 4) Hygiene standards must be maintained in all the branches of the fast food restaurant 5) Standardized menu must be available worldwide (Cao â€Å"Comparison of customers' perceptions of service quality between different management forms in fast food restaurants†). The other key success factor include proper distribution channels, innovative advertising strategies etc. It is a well accepted fact that fast food restaurants should have a sound understanding of the consumer behavior, tastes and preferences and fast food outlets and how it differs across various countries. Understanding the cultural differences between the countries will help the fast food restaurant to customize their menu as per the taste and preference of the local customers. For example McDonalds serves lamburgers in India because beef and pork burgers are not served for religious purposes. In USA and Canada people prefer to eat most of their mea ls outside their homes (Vivavegie â€Å"Fast food facts from the super size me web site†). It is observed that the consumer spending on fast food does not decrease even during recession due to the quick serving ability and its reduced price. The timing of the delivery of the food also plays a prominent role in the customer service of the fast food restaurants. Since obesity has become major health concern in the USA, UK and Canada, the fast food restaurants need to lay emphasis on nutritional requirement and calorie content of the fast food. Thus we can say that factors like 1) Taste of food 2) Hygiene 3) Service response time 4) Pricing of the product 5) Courtesy and behavior of the employees 6) Operating hours 7) Variety in menu 8) Nutritional requirement in the food 9) Amenity play an important

A Poem from Aeon Entelechy Evangelion by Earthscorpion Essay Example for Free

A Poem from Aeon Entelechy Evangelion by Earthscorpion Essay Many a star must have been there for you so you might feel it. A wave lifted towards you out of the past, or, as you walked past an open window, a violin gave of itself. All this was their mission. But could you handle it? Were you not always, still, distracted by expectation, as if all you experienced, like a Beloved, came near to you? (Where could you contain her, with all the vast strange thoughts in you going in and out, and often staying the night. ) But if you are yearning, then sing the lovers: for long heir notorious feelings have not been immortal enough. Those, you almost envied them, the forsaken, that you found as loving as those who were satisfied. Begin, always as new, the unattainable praising: think: the hero prolongs himself, even his falling was only a pretext for being, his latest rebirth. But lovers are taken back by exhausted Nature into herself, as if there were not the power to make them again. Have you remembered Gastara Stampa sufficiently yet, that any girl, whose lover has gone, might feel from that intenser example of love: Could I only become like her? Should not these ancient sufferings be finally fruitful for us? Isnt it time that, loving, we freed ourselves from the beloved, and, trembling, endured as the arrow endures the bow, so as to be, in its flight, something more than itself? For staying is nowhere. Voices, voices. Hear then, my heart, as only saints have heard: so that the mighty call raised them from the earth: they, though, knelt on impossibly and paid no attention: such was their listening. Not that you could withstand Gods voice: far from it. But listen to the breath, the unbroken message that creates itself from the silence. It rushes towards you now, from those youthfully dead. Whenever you entered, didnt their fate speak to you, quietly, in churches in Naples or Rome? Or else an inscription exaltedly impressed itself on you, as lately the tablet in Santa Maria Formosa. What do they will of me? That I should gently remove the semblance of injustice, that slightly, at times, hinders their spirits from a pure moving-on. It is truly strange to no longer inhabit the earth, to no longer practice customs barely acquired, not to give a meaning of human futurity to roses, and other expressly promising things: o longer to be what one was in endlessly anxious hands, and to set aside even ones own proper name like a broken plaything. Strange: not to go on wishing ones wishes. Strange to see all that was once in place, floating so loosely in space. And its hard being dead, and full of retrieval, before one gradually feels a little eternity. Though the living all make the error of drawing too sharp a distinction. An gels (they say) would often not know whether they moved among living or dead. The eternal current sweeps all the ages, within it, through both the spheres, forever, and resounds above them in both. Finally they have no more need of us, the early-departed, weaned gently from earthly things, as one outgrows the mothers mild breast. But we, needing such great secrets, for whom sadness is often the source of a blessed progress, could we exist without them? Is it a meaningless story how once, in the grieving for Linos, first music ventured to penetrate arid rigidity, so that, in startled space, which an almost godlike youth suddenly left forever, the emptiness first felt the quivering that now enraptures us, and comforts, and helps.

Trading Strategies Essay Example for Free

Trading Strategies Essay Gone are the days when purely the corporation’s fundamentals are being studied before someone invests in the stock market. The traditional way of studying corporations is to look at their earnings, assets, liabilities, etc. A fundamentally sound company is an ideal company to invest in. Today, the fundamentals of any company are still considered; in fact, most investors (especially the medium- to long-term traders) consider the fundamentals of a company as a prerequisite to any investment that they are going to execute. The fundamentals of a company tell an investor if his or her investment will be safe in the long run even if there would be minor bumps in the stock market (volatility of prices, for example). Investing in a company with sound fundamentals ensures the investor that any minor price fluctuations can be ignored as long as a long-term horizon is the perspective of the investor. Thus, even if the price of a certain stock drops, an investor would not easily pullout his or her investments because he or she believes in the company. In essence, he is an investor more than being a trader.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   But it is indeed correct that fundamentalists need market technicians. Technical analysis is about charts, trends, and market behavior or psychology. It is in this study that an ideal time to enter into an investment (or to sellout your shares) can be established scientifically. A classic example of how technical analysts may help an investor is by considering the case of the recent US subprime woes. Even fundamentally sound companies in the stock market are affected by this market decline. A fundamentalist, hence, the long-term investor, has a little concern on this because he know that the company he is investing on is safe and will rebound in the long run. However, a technical analysis of prices during this period would dictate that an investor should have sold his or her shares and buy back as soon as the market goes on the uptrend mode.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I agree that both fundamentalists and market technicians need each other for them to maximize their earning opportunities.

Limitations Of Biometrics

Limitations Of Biometrics This paper focuses on the limitations of biometrics and demonstrates how the theory of cancellable biometrics can mitigate such limitations. Cancellable biometrics gives biometric systems, theoretically, the ability to re-issue biometric signals. Thus, if a biometric database is ever compromised, the biometric image can be re-set. Our team believes that cancellable biometrics should be a best practice when utilizing biometric technologies. This paper begins with a background of biometric technologies, the global biometric market, and general limitations of biometrics. The main body focuses on the background, concepts, and function of cancellable biometrics offered as a solution for some of the limitations addressed. Finally, an analysis of cancellable biometrics advantages and disadvantages concludes our paper. What is Biometrics? To define biometrics, you can look at the Greek translation. Bios translates to life and metric translates to measurement. This leads to a direct translation of biometrics to life measurement. (Biometric Definition-What, 2005) Biometrics is a technique for identification of people that uses body characteristics or behavioral traits and is increasingly being used instead of or in conjunction with other forms of identification based on something you have (e.g. ID card) or something you know (e.g. password or PIN). (8.5 Biometrics) The direct Greek translation of life measurement is fitting because biometrics looks to measure physical or behavioral traits of a human for identification purposes. There are two types of biometrics: behavioral and physical. Behavioral biometrics measures the characteristics that an individual naturally acquires over the span of their lifetime. Examples of this technology include speaker recognition, signature verification, and keystroke verification. Physical biometrics measures the physical characteristics and body measurements of an individual. Examples of this technology include facial recognition, iris and retinal scan fingerprinting, and DNA typing (Biometric Definition-What, 2005). There are also two modes that biometrics can operate in: verification and identification. Verification is used to validate a person against who they claim or present themselves to be. It is a one to one match between the acquired template of the individual and a stored template for matching. This mode relies on individuals entering their biometric information into the system prior to trying to gain access to it (8.5 Biometrics). Identification is the process of trying to figure out who an individual is. This involves a comparison of the individual to a list of templates stored in the database. (Yun, 2003) Physical biometrics can be used for either verification or identification while behavioral biometrics is typically only used for verification purposes. (Biometric Definition-What, 2005) The History of Biometrics Biometrics seems to be a modern day technology, but its concept was actually applied as far back as the fourteenth century. Chinese merchants used fingerprinting during the fourteenth century to identify children (Osborn, 2005). In 1890, Alphonse Bertillon developed a form of biometrics known as anthropometrics. Anthropometrics is a method of identifying individuals based on precise measurements of their body and physical descriptions. This method fell out of use when it was discovered that multiple individuals could share the same body measurements. (Biometrics History, 2006) Early in the 20th century, an applied mathematician named Karl Pearson used statistical history and correlation to biometrics research. Signature biometric authentication was developed during the 1960s and 1970s, marking a huge breakthrough in behavioral biometrics. (Osborn, 2005) Also during this time, the FBI pushed for automating their fingerprint recognition process. This automation was the start of modern day biometrics, a combination of the biometrics process with information technology. During the 2001 Superbowl in Tampa, Florida, face recognition software was installed at the stadium to identify known criminals. (Biometrics History, 2006) Post 9/11 terrorist attacks, there was a huge push by the U.S. government to implement biometrics on a large scale. The government began installing facial recognition hardware and software in airports to identify suspected terrorists. (Osborn, 2005) Generic Biometric System While there are many biometric technologies in use today, and many more being invested in and researched on, they all share a similar process flow (Yun, 2003). The following image is a basic block diagram of a biometric system: Source: (Yun, 2003) The process always starts with some type of sensor device. This is what captures the biometric information. The capture information is then sent through a processing phase. Here the information is cleaned up, noise is removed, and the important data is enhanced. The processed data is then put together to form a template. A template is what represents the biometric data within the system. If its the first time the individual is using the system, the template is stored within the system. Otherwise, the generated template is compared against an already stored template during the matching process. If the biometric technology is operating in a verification mode, the generated template is matched against a specific stored template. If the technology is operating in an identification mode, the generated template is matched against a list of stored templates. If the matching process yields a positive match, then the individual is granted access to the application device. (Yun, 2003) Current Global Biometric Market It is important to consider the prevalence of biometrics. Although it may seem futuristic, biometrics is being used in countries all over the world. According to Prabhakar, Pankanti, and Jain, biometric applications fall into three main categories: commercial, government, and forensic. The commercial category includes applications used in e-commerce, banking, and social networking sites. Governments use biometrics for drivers licenses, immigration control, and e-passports. Forensic applications include devices used in criminal investigation and prisoner identity control. (Prabhakar, Pankanti, Jain, 2003) According to BCC research, the global biometric revenue increased from $1.950 billion in 2006 to $2.7 billion in 2007. The compound annual growth rate from 2007 to 2012 was expected to be 21.3% (The Global Biometrics Market, 2007). As you can see from the figure below, the biometric technology being used ranges from fingerprint scanners, leading the market, to hand geometry scanners. The market statistics above were derived in 2007. As a means for comparison, our group thought it best to obtain market research from at least one more source. According to a more recent article, issued by homeland security newswire on January 18, 2011, the market is expected to grow at 18.9% per year until 2015, bringing estimated global revenue from biometrics up to $12 billion in 2015. Fingerprint technologies will still dominate the market, with face, iris, vein, voice recognition following (Biometrics market expected, 2011). BCC assumed a 21.3% annual growth rate, which would have made 2011 expected revenue around $5.8 billion, the actual 2011 global biometric market revenues totaled $5 billion (Biometrics market expected, 2011). The main point is that the global biometrics market has been growing as expected and is expected to grow. Biometric technology offers significant advantages, but there are some limitations that need to be addressed as the biometric market continues to grow. For example, although the US has been the leader of the biometric market, scanning of iris or fingerprints to use ATM machines has not been implemented due to privacy and expense concerns. (Biometric ATMs not, 2005) One of the major limitations is the issue of privacy. The issue of privacy and other limitations, if not resolved, may continue to prevent the biometric market growth as seen by Americans lack of biometric ATM machines. The following section will discuss limitations of generic biometric systems Limitations of Biometrics An obvious issue with biometrics is costs. The table below was derived from the product offerings of a leading biometrics supplier, digitalPersona, Inc., using the framework from their whitepaper on best practices. This chart includes all aspects of a typical authentication system. As you can see the cost of biometric technology hardware and software is expensive in itself and costs for training, design, maintenance, and security will also be incurred. Category Details Cost Time Training Users, administrators $100-$1,500 per user 1 hour 5 days Design Ensure compatibility with other systems $1,000-$4,000 1 day 10 days Installation Hardware and software purchases/configure $3,000-$50,000 10 days 30 days User enrollment Acquisition of biometrics $50-$175 per user .75 hr Maintenance Add/modify users $25-$200 per instance 0.5 hr Security Extra safeguards within system to ensure privacy $500-$20,000 1 day 10 days Source: (Best Practices, 2009) Another area of concern with biometrics is the fact that once a biometric image has been leaked or obtained by an unauthorized source, that image is no longer secure for use with any application (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008). Authentication tools, such as passwords, keys, and identification cards have always been easily cancellable and renewable, but biometrics have been a concern because users only have, in general, one face, two eyes, one set of fingerprints, etc. (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). Although it is difficult to do, determined data thieves can extract biometric images and put them to improper use, rendering stolen images useless in terms of security. The figure below demonstrates eight vulnerabilities of ordinary biometric systems. Source: (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). Figure www.fidis.netOnce original biometric data is obtained, reproduction can easily be achieved. Attacks around the sensor may include inputting fake or copied biometric signal (point 1) or using a copy of a genuine biometric, tape with fingerprint, to bypass the sensor (point 2) (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). The other parts of the system, feature extraction method (points 3 and 4), the matching device and decision (points 4 and 8), the database that holds the biometric images (point 6), and the communication channel between database and matcher (point 7), are much harder to attack, but if successfully breached will result in the theft or alteration of biometric templates which cannot be replaced (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). The biggest disadvantage of biometrics is that biometric data cannot be changed or reset. For example, if a password is stolen, a new password can be created. However, if a biometric characteristic is stolen from a database, a new biometric characteristic cannot be issued. Thus, if a biometric database is compromised, that biometric used for authentication purposes cannot be used again. Finally, there is a huge privacy concern, as seen with the USs delay of implementing ATMs with biometric systems. The uniqueness of biometric data raises this concern. There is already an enormous amount of data being collected by social networking sites, employers, the government, retail stores, medical centers, etc., Each entity may identify someone with data that can either be changed or is not solely unique to them, such as an email address or a name (Joe Smith). Thus, if the government wanted information from a retail store about a particular person, they may not be able to determine, from the retailers database, whether it is Joe Smith from California or Joe Smith from Arkansas. Currently to make data sharing possible, data would have to be paired with more data in order to identify the right person and then share information about that person between entities. This idea of data sharing among entities produces a fear in some people with regards to the use of biometrics because biometric data is completely unique to a person. If all these entities have biometric data, data unique to just one individual, all the entities could share data in their databases (cross-matching). For example, data collected by private company can be matched with the governments data. (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001) One solution to this privacy concern is cancellable biometrics (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). Cancellable biometrics allows authentication biometric signals to be re-set if a database is every compromised. Basically, cancellable biometrics distorts a biometric signal based on a certain transform during enrollment, and continues to distort it the same way for every presentation and authentication thereafter (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). If biometric data is ever stolen, a new transform is used and re-enrollment is allowed (Gaddam, Lal, 2010). The following sections further explain cancellable biometrics and how it can mitigate the risks of biometric systems vulnerabilities. History of Cancellable Biometrics The study and research around cancellable biometrics is relatively new with most research beginning around the turn of the 21st century. Although many have contributed to the field, several publications, including the Encyclopedia of Biometrics (2009) and The Journal of the Pattern Recognition Society credit Nalini Ratha with the concepts that led to the creation of cancellable biometrics (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008). Cancellable biometrics was conceptualized as a way to address the potential downsides and security concerns of ordinary biometrics. In order to prevent the preclusion of a biometric image, cancellable biometrics was created. The goal of cancellable biometrics is to provide biometric authentication that is not only unique to an individual, but one that also has the ability to be changed. Cancellable biometrics does not provide extra security around biometrically authenticated systems, but does provide a way to avoid losing the ability to use biometrics as an authentication m ethod. As its name suggests, cancellable biometrics allows a biometric template to be cancelled and replaced with a new image that is based on the same biometric data, resulting in one of many possible permutations (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008). According to the Encyclopedia of Biometrics (2009), cancellable biometrics allows biometric images to be reset by encoding each biometric image with a different distortion scheme for each application that uses the image (Lee Jain, 2009). In order to assure the security of each permutated biometric image, a unique distortion scheme must be used for each unique application (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008). The use of a distortion scheme creates an image for storage in a database that is not an exact match to the original biometric measure, therefore changing the image is as easy as changing the distortion scheme. Next we will discuss the concepts behind cancellable biometrics that are used to increase the security of biometric authentication and to keep biometric data unique. The Concepts Behind Cancellable Biometrics There are three criteria that a cancellable biometric template must meet in order to be useful and secure: (1) each cancellable template must be used for only one application, (2) the revocation and reissue procedures must be straightforward, and (3) the template computation must not be able to be reversed in order to protect the original biometric data. These three steps may also be referred to as diversity, reusability, and one-way transformation, respectively (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008). Using the same biometric template for multiple applications exposes data to the same threats that using the same password for multiple applications would. If an unauthorized user gains access to one application, access can be achieved to all applications that use the same template. When using one template for multiple applications, no matter how strong the security is for the strongest application, the security of all the applications with the same authorization template is only as strong as the weakest link. Addressing the second criteria, that revocation and reissue procedures must be straightforward, is as it says, straightforward. Without a straightforward way to cancel and reissue a biometric template, biometric data is subject to interception and physical alteration (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008). The third criterion, that the computation of the template not be reversible, is also meant to protect the integrity and the identity of the original biometric data (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008). If a computation can be reversed, and the original biometric data is revealed, the biometric measurement will be useless and unsecure. A popular method for creating non-invertible biometric data is to use a hashing function. Due to the unique characteristics of individual biometric data, there are several guidelines that a hashing function must take into account when creating non-invertible data. For example, regarding fingerprint data, Tulyakov, Mansukhani, Govindaraju, and Farooq (2007) suggest that hashing functions should have similar hash values for similar fingerprints, different values for fingerprints that are different, that the rotation of a fingerprint should not affect the hash value, and that, if sufficient minutiae is available, partial fingerprints should be matched. Minutiae refer to uniquely identifiable points on a set of fingerprints (Tulyakov, Farooq, Mansukhani, Govindaraju, 2007). Within cancellable biometrics there are two distortion techniques that are widely recognized, signal domain distortion and feature domain distortion. What signal and feature domain distortion basically provide are ways to either distort a biometric image directly after acquisition or extract features from a biometric image, such as minutiae, and then distort the features, respectively (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). Signal domain distortion creates an independent image to be registered by a biometric reader, but still provides landmarks that can be compared to the original image, e.g. points on a persons face or eyes, for authentication. Feature domain distortion extracts template features and scrambles them, providing a sufficient technique for biometric measurements, such as fingerprints, which would be difficult to preserve accurate minutiae and a similar image (Lee Jain, 2009). How it works: Cancellable biometrics is achieved when a normal biometrics pattern is modified before it is stored in an intentional and repeatable method. This change in the pattern can be initiated by several methods, however this topic is still in development and a single industry best practice has not yet been distilled. Instead of the actual values from the biometric sensor being stored, a value that is the combination of the modifier and the sensors reading is stored. In the case that the biometrics is impersonated or the database is compromised, the modifier can be changed and the user can be authenticated with the system. (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001) Modifiers can be anything from a random number, a personal identification number, or even another biometric reading. The combination of these two items, similar to two-factor authentication, can create a unique key that uses both an individually unique value with the independent but derived from the biometric. (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001) Once the biometric reader scans the individual, an algorithm is applied to the value. This transformation can happen in either the scanning device or post-processed within the computer system before it is validated against the record within the database. These readers can be hardware devices that connect to a computer network or appliances which are self-contained. After successful verification of credentials the user is granted authentication. (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001) Demo: use ppt slides to explain the images and how they are distorted and stored for cancellable biometrics. Advantages of Cancellable Biometrics Different entities and different applications use different transforms for the same signals. This prevents the sharing between databases of different entities (Gaddam, Lal, 2010). For example, a law enforcement agency will use one transform for a fingerprint scan, and a commercial entity will use a different transform for the same fingerprint scan. This idea of diversity makes cross-matching impossible. As seen in the figure below, the merchant takes the biometric data from the customer and compares it to a transform from one of the transform databases associated with a particular service (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). This should ease privacy concerns as different transforms are held in different databases per entity. Source: (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001) Also, the authentication server never stores original biometrics (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). The benefit is that the risk of identity theft is significantly reduced because the transforms are non-invertible. Even if a hacker accessed a template database, there would be no way for he/she to figure out the original biometric. The reusability feature, described in the section titled The Concepts Behind Cancellable Biometrics of this paper, protects the biometric authentication process from becoming obsolete. If cancellable biometrics did not offer re-usability and data continually was compromised, theoretically, people would start to run out of body parts to use. Limitations of Cancellable Biometrics Cancellable biometrics is not the solution to all of the limitations of biometrics. Cancellable biometrics provides a solution for privacy concerns and resetting issues related to biometrics. However, it does not decrease the enormous cost associated with biometrics. Also, it does not prevent the use of a copied biometric signal (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001). For example, if someone found a way to obtain a copy of a fingerprint and used that copy of the genuine biometric to access a system/account/place etc., matching could be possible and access could be granted. Cancellable biometrics prevents identity theft by the use of non-invertible transforms and it increases privacy by preventing data sharing among entities because original biometric data is never stored, it doesnt prevent people from using copies of genuine biometrics. As discussed in the section Limitations of Biometrics, biometric systems are subject to attack. Cancellable biometrics does not prevent an attack, however, i f a biometric database or other parts of the system are compromised, a new transform can be used for the authentication process and the hacker will not be able to obtain the original biometric. Thus it mitigates the damage, but not the risk of attack. Another limitation of cancellable biometrics is the trade-off of higher protection for higher error rates. The invertible feature increases protection of original data, but causes a decrease in recognition accuracy (Cheung, Kong, Zhang, Kamel, You, Lam). This may lead to a higher false rejection rate. A higher false rejection rate is inefficient and costly. Conclusion: The global biometric market is expected to continue growing. However, limitations of generic biometric systems may inhibit the market growth from its full potential. General limitations of generic biometric systems include enormous costs, fake enrollment, physical copies bypassing sensors, attacks on the system parts and/or database, threat to privacy of individuals, and failure to reset biometrics. Cancellable biometrics provides a solution to some of generic biometric system limitations. With cancellable biometrics, a biometric template must have three criteria: (1) each cancellable template must be used for only one application, (2) the revocation and reissue procedures must be straightforward, and (3) the template computation must not be able to be reversed in order to protect the original biometric data. These three criteria, also known as diversity, reusability, and one-way transformation (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008), disallow data-sharing among entities, protect the overall biomet rics from becoming obsolete, and prevent a hacker from obtaining genuine biometrics. Our team believes that due to the demand for biometrics in general, cancellable biometrics has a potential market. IBM has been researching and developing cancellable biometrics. According to an article off IBMs website, Helping enhance security and protect identities, several large banks have been talking with IBM about the use of cancellable biometrics. Cancellable biometrics also is applicable to sectors of the government like the IRS, Social Security administration, and law enforcement organizations (Helping enhance security-). Thus, cancellable biometrics may evolve from research and development into a marketable tool that may refresh the global biometrics market. Work Cited 8.5 Biometrics. University of Leicester. Retrieved April 26, 2011 from . Citation: (8.5 Biometrics) Biometric ATMs not being used in U.S. (2005, October 11). Retrieved April 25, 2011 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9660429/ns/technology_and_science-security/ Citation: (Biometric ATMs not, 2005) Biometric Definition What Is Biometrics? Biometrics Technology : Explained. (2005) Retrieved April 25, 2011 from . Citation: (Biometric Definition-What, 2005) Biometrics History. (2006). Biometrics.gov. NSTC Subcommittee on Biometrics, April 18, 2011. . Citation: (Biometrics History, 2006) Biometrics market expected to hit $12 billion in 2015. (2011, January 18). Retrieved April 25, 2011 from http://homelandsecuritynewswire.com/biometrics-market-expected-hit-12-billion-2015-0 Citation: (Biometrics market expected, 2011) Best Practices for Implementing Fingerprint Biometrics in Application. (2009). DigitalPersona. Retrieved April 25, 2011 from http://www.digitalpersona.com/uploadedFiles/Collateral/White_papers/DP-wp-appbestpractices2009-08-21.pdf Citation: (Best Practices, 2009) Cheung, H.K, Kong, A., Zhang, D., Kamel, M., You, J., You, T., Lam. H-W., (n.d.). An analysis on accuracy of cancellable biometrics based on biohashing. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Computing, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China. Retrieved April 22, 2011 from http://pami.uwaterloo.ca/~cswkkong/publication/CheungKES2005Final.pdf Citation: (Cheung, Kong, Zhang, Kamel, You, Lam) Gaddam, S.V.K, Lal, M. (2010). Efficient cancellable biometric key generation scheme for cryptography. International Journal of Network Security, 11(2), 61-69. Retrieved April 22, 2011 from http://ijns.femto.com.tw/contents/ijns-v11-n2/ijns-2010-v11-n2-p61-69.pdf Citation: (Gaddam, Lal, 2010) Helping enhance security and protect identities. IBM. Retrieved April 26, 2011 from http://domino.watson.ibm.com/odis/odis.nsf/pages/board.10.html (Helping enhance security-) Lee, S.Z., Jain, A.K. (2009). Encyclopedia biometrics. Retrieved April 22, 2011 from http://books.google.com/books?id=0bQbOYVULQcCpg=PA175lpg=PA175dq=definition+of+cancellable+biometricssource=blots=hGzi-8vSaHsig=-nkyxjWspXze1UzIzF9BCfGPdlQhl=enei=sOWwTePoAcjXgQfM9oToCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=4sqi=2ved=0CCoQ6AEwAw#v=onepageqf=false Citation: (Lee Jain, 2009) Osborn, A. (2005, August 17) Biometrics History the History of Biometrics from past to Present. Video Surveillance Systems, Security Cameras CCTV Equipment Guide. April, 25, 2011. . Citation: (Osborn, 2005) Piuri, Vincenzo (2008) Fingerprint Biometrics via Low-cost Sensors and Webcams. IEEE. Retrieved April 25, 2011 from http://clem.dii.unisi.it/~vipp/files/prin/2008_Conf_BTAS__ImageProcessingForFingerprintBiometricsViaLowcostCamerasAndWebcams.pdf Citation: (Piuri, 2008) Prabhakar, S, Pankanti, S, Jain, A. K. (2003, March). Biometric recognition: security and privacy concerns. IEEE Security and Privacy. Retrieved April 25, 2011 from http://www.cse.msu.edu/biometrics/Publications/GeneralBiometrics/PrabhakarPankantiJain_BiometricSecurityPrivacy_SPM03.pdf Citation: (Prabhakar, Pankanti, Jain, 2003) Ratha, N.K., Connell, J.H., Bolle, R.M. (2001). Enhancing security and privacy in biometrics-based authentication systems. IBM Systems Journal , 40(3), 614-634 Retrieved April 22, 2011 from http://www.google.com/#sclient=psyhl=ensite=source=hpq=Enhancing+security+and+privacy+in+biometrics-based+authentication+systemsaq=faqi=g1aql=foq=pbx=1bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.fp=f4864d47f9f205c8biw=1366bih=583 Citation: (Ratha, Connell, Bolle, 2001) Teoh, A.B.J., Kuan, Y.W., Lee, S. (2008). Cancellable biometrics and annotations on biohash. Journal of the Pattern Recognition Society, 41(6), 2034-2044 Retrieved April 22, 2011 from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL_udi=B6V14-4RBYCY01_user=513551_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2008_rdoc=1_fmt=high_orig=gateway_origin=gateway_sort=d_docanchor=view=c_searchStrId=1731821718_rerunOrigin=google_acct=C000025338_version=1_urlVersion=0_userid=513551md5=475892d68fa817e0474084b6dcd88f78searchtype=a Citation: (Teoh, Kuan, Lee, 2008) The Global Biometrics Market. (2007, December). Retrieved April 25, 2011 from http://www.bccresearch.com/report/biometrics-global-market-ift042b.html Citation: (The Global Biometrics Market, 2007) Tulyakov, S, Farooq, F, Mansukhani, P, Govindaraju, V. (2007). Symmetric hash functions for secure fingerprint biometric systems. Pattern Reconition Letters, 28(16), 2427-2436. Retrieved April 22, 2011 from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL_udi=B6V15-4PFW6247_user=513551_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2007_rdoc=1_fmt=high_orig=gateway_origin=gateway_sort=d_docanchor=view=c_searchStrId=1731826413_rerunOrigin=google_acct=C000025338_version=1_urlVersion=0_userid=513551md5=827daed9e4525f816e7cf49eaa173152searchtype=a Citation: (Tulyakov, Farooq, Mansukhani, Govindaraju, 2007) Yun, W. (2003) The 123 of Biometric Technology. [web] Accessed 18 April 2011 from www.itsc.org/sg/synthesis/2002/biometric.pdf. Citation: (Yun, 2003)

The Structure of Chinese Language and Ontological Insights :: China Chinese Language Essays

The Structure of Chinese Language and Ontological Insights ABSTRACT: Through a comparative analysis of the Chinese language, this paper discusses how the structure and functions of a natural language would bear upon the ways in which some philosophical problems are posed and some ontological insights are shaped. By this case analysis, the aim of this paper is to contribute to the elucidation of the relation between language and philosophy in this regard. 1. Introduction Through a comparative case analysis regarding the Chinese language, this paper discusses how the structure and functions of a natural language would bear upon the ways in which some philosophical problems are posed and some ontological insights are shaped. In so doing, I suggest and argue for a mereological collective-noun hypothesis about the denotational semantics of Chinese nouns. By this case analysis, the paper aims to contribute to the elucidation of the relation between language and philosophy in this regard. My discussion begins with a puzzle: why the classical Platonic one-many problem in the Western philosophical tradition has not been consciously posed in the Chinese philosophical tradition and why, generally speaking, classical Chinese philosophers seem less interested in debating the relevant ontological issues. (1) One suspects that the structures and uses of different languages might play their roles in pushing philosophical theorization in different directions; the ways of speaking and writing of the Chinese language might reveal and reflect Chinese folk ideology and then influence the ways in which certain philosophical questions are posed and certain ontological insights are formed. This puzzle is significant because it is concerned with a fundamental philosophical question about the relation between thought and language. The problem of relating Chinese thought to the structure and functions of the Chinese language has for generations tantalized sinologists and those philosophers who are concerned with the problem. Nevertheless, in the last decade, some significant progress has been made in this regard. In his book Language and Logic in Ancient China, (2) Chad Hansen advances a novel and provocative theory about the nature of the classical Chinese language. (3) The central thesis of Hansen's theory is his mass-noun hypothesis. Its main ideas are these: (1) the (folk) semantics of Chinese nouns are like those of mass-nouns (i.e., those nouns referring to the so-called interpenetrating stuffs, like 'water' and 'snow'), and naming in Chinese is not grounded on the existence of, or roles for, abstract entities (either on

Leonardo Da Vinci :: essays research papers fc

Leonardo Da Vinci was born on April 14, 1452 in the town of Vinci near Florence Italy. He kept the name of his town for his last name. He lived during the fifteenth century, a period when the people of Europe were becoming interested in art. This period of time was known as the Renaissance period. Leonardo Da Vinci was very talented. He was a great artist, but he became famous because he was able to do so many other things. He was an architect, a musician, inventor, sculptor, scientist, and mathematician. His artistic talent revealed its self early in his life. When he was about 15 years old Leonardo's father took him to Florence Italy, to train as a painter and sculptor in the studio of Andrea del Verroccho. He studied with this master until the age of twenty five. At this point, he set up his own business and was famous for being a painter and a man of science. As a scientist, he observed everything he could in nature. Leonardo used what he learned from nature and science to make h is paintings look real. He drew and took many notes of what he observed. His notes were written backwards, probably because he didn't want people to read about his discoveries and observations. In order to read Leonardo's notes, one has to hold them up to a mirror. In 1472 he entered a painters' guild. His earliest extensive works date back to this time. In 1482 Da Vinci worked for Duke Lodovico Sforza in Milan for 18 years. He fulfilled the position as court artist, but also worked as an engineer and architect. While in Milan Leonardo developed more theories about painting. Leonardo believed that knowledge should be based on observation. He believed that observation led to understanding, and artists had an obligation to record this understanding by painting accurate images. He made sketches of everything around him. This caused him to make a master plan, his plan was to record the structure of every building in the world. He believed that this would uncover laws of harmony and prop ortion. In the fall of 1499 Leonardo left France and headed to Florence. There he painted paintings such as, Battle of Anghiari a mural that was painted for the Council Chamber of Town Hall, the famous portrait named the Mona Lisa, and Leda and the Swan.

Challenges and Opportunities for Ob

ORB PQ Chapter 3 : Attitudes and Job Satisfaction1. Which of the following answer choices is the best definition of attitude? a. Attitudes indicate how one will react to a given event. b. Attitudes are the yardstick by which one measures one’s actions. c. Attitudes are the emotional part of an evaluation of some person, object or event. d. Attitudes are evaluative statements concerning objects, people or events e. Attitudes are a measure of how the worth of an object, person or event is evaluated. 2. The belief that â€Å"violence is wrong† is a evaluative statement. Such an opinion constitutes the component of an attitude. . cognitive b. affective c. reflective d. behavioral e. reactive 3. The _____ component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling component of that attitude. a. affective b. cognitive c. behavioral d. evaluative e. reaffective 4. The following are possible actions that an individual may take if they behave in a way that is inconsistent with an attitude that they hold: I: change the behavior II: change the attitude III: rationalize the behavior IV: ignore the inconstancy Which of these actions are the most likely to be taken? a. Either I, or II b. Either III or IV c. One of I, II or III . One of I, III or IV e. One of II, III or IV 5. Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes results in _____. a. organizational dissonance b. cognitive dissonance c. attitudinal clarification d. values clarification e. affective reactance 6. The theory of cognitive dissonance was proposed by ______________. a. Maslow b. Festinger c. Hofstede d. Skinner e. Pavlov 7. â€Å"Dissonance† means ______________. a. reactance b. constance c. resistance d. consistency e. inconsistency 8. According to Festinger, people will seek a(an) ________________________. a. ariable state with variable dissonance b. stable state with maximal dissonance c. unstable state with maximal dissonance d. unstable state with minimal dissonance e. stable state with minimal dissonance 9. Festinger proposed that the desire to reduce dissonance is determined by three factors including the_________________. a. values of the elements creating the dissonance b. degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements c. degree of positive affect the person has toward the behavior d. fact that values and attitudes will vary over the short term e. wareness that dissonance exists 10. The primary organizational implication of cognitive dissonance theory is that it helps to predict _____. a. overall job satisfaction for employees b. the likelihood of a given employee engaging in impression management c. the overall level to which the workforce will accept gender, racial or other types of bias d. the willingness of the workforce to accept company rules and work practices e. the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioral change of the workforce 11. Which of the following is not a moderating variable of the A-B relationship? . direct experience b. consistency c. specificity d. accessibility e. importance 12. The theory that attitudes are used, after the fact, to make sense out of action that has already occurred is best explained by ______________. a. cognitive dissonance b. escalation of commitment c. self perception theory d. uncertainty avoidance e. organizational commitment 13. The E. M. Foster quote, â€Å"How can I know what I think ‘til I see what I say? † reflects the notions captured by ______________ theory. a. cognitive dissonance b. escalation of commitment c. self perception d. ncertainty avoidance e. social affirmation 14. The degree to which a person identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance as being important to self-worth is _________________. a. job satisfaction b. job involvement c. job stability d. organizational commitment e. social embeddedness 15. ________________ can be defined as a positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. a. Job satisfaction b. Job involvement c. Job stability d. Organizational commitment e. Social investment 16.In her work in the publishing industry, Vera seeks out new authors who she considers promising. In the past two years she has found a number of new writers whose work she thought was exceptional, and immersed herself in the task of helping them shape their manuscripts for submission to her managers for publishing. Although she was extremely proud of the results, none of the authors she worked with were chosen for publication. Vera believes that the decision not to publish these authors was based on personal rivalries within management, rather than the quality of her writers’ work.She is extremely frustrated, dreads coming into work each morning and is seriously thinking of resigning. How can Vera’s job attitudes best be described? a. low job satisfaction and low job involvement b. low job satisfaction and high job involvement c. high job satisfaction and low job involvement d. high job satisfaction and high job involvement e. low organizational commitment17. Organiza tional commitment is defined as ___________________________. a. the degree to which an employee identifies with the organization they work for and its goals b. n employee’s belief that the organization they work for will go to considerable lengths to ensure that its employees are treated fairly c. the degree to which an employee’s sense of fulfillment and self worth is related to their job d. the amount of effort an employee will make in order to keep or advance their position in an organization e. the degree to which an employee believes their work impacts their organization18. Of the following, the best predictor of turnover is ______________. a. job satisfaction b. job involvement c. organizational commitment d. cognitive dissonance e. ffective dissonance19. The following are methods of measuring employee attitudes: I. a one-question global rating II. a summation score made up of a number of job facets III. a 360? battery Which of these methods are the best to use i n order to measure job satisfaction? a. I only b. II only c. III only dI and II are equally as good e. II or III are equally as good20. The following statements are about the relationship between job satisfaction and customer satisfaction for frontline employees who have regular customer contact: I. employee satisfaction is positively correlated to customer satisfaction II. employee satisfaction has no correlation to customer satisfaction III. satisfied customers tend to raise employee satisfaction Which of these statements are true? a. I only b. II only c. III only d. I and III e. II and III21. Actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements and discussing problems with superiors would be what type of response? a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. reification22. Quietly continuing to do your work when you know things won’t improve, is what type of response to dissatisfaction? a. exit b. oice c. loyalty d. neglect e. social voice23. Maria is dissatisfied with the way that her manager treats her. She has quit her job and found a new position with another firm. She has expressed her dissatisfaction through __________. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. social voice24. Henry is dissatisfied with his job but believes that his supervisor is a good man who will do the right thing. Henry has decided that if he just waits, conditions will improve. Henry’s approach to this problem is termed ________. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. reificationSCENARIO-BASED QUESTIONSMrs. Jonas believes strongly that it is important that worker’s rights be respected, and that one of the more important ways of doing this is to ensure that all workers be properly documented. She is supervising a contracting company that is building a new warehouse for her company. While doing this she discovers that many of the workers employed by the contractor are undocumented aliens working for well below minimum wage.25. Mrs. Jonas is likely experiencing _____. a. cognitive dissonance b. unresolved anger c. ethical evasion d. uncertainty avoidance e. social pressure 6. In this situation Mrs. Jonas has a/an _____ that is in conflict with a/an _____. a. behavior; behavior b. attitude; attitude c. social need; social interest d. social need; social need e. behavior; attitude27. Mrs. Jonas can be expected to relieve the discomfort she is experiencing by _____. a. deciding this issue is unimportant b. rationalizing that it is not her problem since she is not the contractor c. attempting to stop the contractor using undocumented workers d. coming to accept that using undocumented workers does not harm workers’ rights e. any of the aboveEmployees at Acme Express are dissatisfied with working conditions, salary, and the general attitude of management. Mark, Susan, and Toni are good friends who work at Acme, yet each seem to be reacting differently to the problems at work.28. Toni has decide d that she’ll just get a new job and get away from the problem. Toni is dealing with her dissatisfaction through _____. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. acceptance29. Susan has composed a list of concerns along with her suggestions for improving conditions. Susan is dealing with her dissatisfaction through ________. a. exit b. voice c. oyalty d. neglect e. acceptance30. Mark believes that his manager is a good person and will work things out if Mark just gives him time to do so. Mark is dealing with his dissatisfaction through _____. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. acceptanceDESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS1. Explain the concept of job satisfaction and discuss how job satisfaction can impact employee productivity, absenteeism and turnover.1. Discuss Cognitive dissonance and Self – Perception Theories and examine their significance in understanding relationship between Attitude and Behavior ( A – B Relationship) ___________________ Challenges and Opportunities for Ob International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), pp. 139-147 www. irssh. com ISSN 2248-9010 (Online), ISSN 2250-0715 (Print) The Constructivist Theory in Mathematics: The Case of Botswana Primary Schools Thenjiwe Emily Major (Corresponding Author) Department of Educational Foundations University of Botswana Private Bag- 00702, Gaborone Botswana- 00267 E-mail: [email  protected] ub. bw Boitumelo Mangope Department of Educational Foundations University of Botswana Private Bag- 00702, Gaborone Botswana- 00267 E-mail: [email  protected] ub. w (Received: 13-10-11 / Accepted: 12-4-12) Abstract This paper is based on a large research study that compared teacher quality and student performance in Southern Africa countries of Botswana and South Africa. In this paper we explore the extent to which the primary school teachers in Botswana use the constructivist approach in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Data was collected through classroom videotaping. Sixty out of the 64 mathematics teachers teaching at least one mathematics lesson, and more than one third of the teachers were videotaped twice.A total of 83 mathematics lessons were videotaped. The results of the study indicated that a large percentage of lessons observed required learners to simply recall rules, while a very small percentage of the lessons observed required learners to investigate or explore relationships between mathematical ideas. Keywords: Constructivism, mathematics, active learning, Botswana, passive learning. Introduction Constructivism is a learning theory describing the process of knowledge construction.Knowledge construction is an active, rather than a passive process. Constructivists believe that knowledge should not be just deposited into the learners’ minds; instead it should be constructed by the learners through active involvement in the learning process. Hausfather (2001) noted that, Constructivism is not a method. It is a theory of knowledg e and learning that should inform practice but not prescribe practice. By its very nature, constructivism emphasizes the Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 140 mportance of the teaching context, student prior knowledge, and active interaction between the learner and the content to be learned. (p. 18). In the constructivist perspective, knowledge is constructed by the individual through his/her interactions with the environment. Unlike the traditional mode of learning whereby the teacher plays an active role in the teaching/learning environment, and learners passively receive the content, constructivists believe the learning should be centered on the learner.This has been acknowledged by Simon (1995) that â€Å"we construct our knowledge of our world from our perceptions and experiences, which are themselves mediated through our previous knowledge† (p. 115). When teachers believe that learners are empty vessels to be filled with the information from the authority, then teacher domina tion will always exist in the teaching learning environment. According to Freire (1970) the domination of the teacher is referred to as the ‘banking concept’ education.The banking concept sees the teacher as the only source of information. It is important that teachers should actively involve learners in their teaching to enable the students to construct knowledge. According to the Educational Broadcasting Corporation (2004) â€Å" in the classroom teaching, constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices†¦it means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving)† (p. 1).Kennedy (1997) also noted that â€Å"what students learn is greatly influenced by how they are taught† (p. 2). Mathematics by nature is a subject that requires learners to be fully engaged in order for learning to take place. Therefore, this paper explores the extent to which learners were given the oppo rtunity to construct their own knowledge in the mathematics lessons. Statement of the Problem Botswana students need to learn mathematics differently than the current practices employed. Research has revealed that most teachers in Botswana end to present mathematics knowledge to the learners to swallow and regurgitate when needed, and not with the aim of helping them to develop independent skills to construct their own mathematics knowledge (The Report on the process of learning in Botswana: An in-depth study of the quality of mathematics teaching in sixth grade classrooms and its effect on learner achievement, 2011). Teachers have also been discovered to have insufficient skills to present maths skills to learners (The Report on the process of learning in Botswana, 2011).Teachers, therefore, must change their instructional techniques for learners to be actively engaged in their own learning and not passive recipients. Learners must learn to communicate and think mathematically. For future educational growth, , Botswana needs learners who are creative, analytic, problem solvers. Such skills can be promoted at the school level through the constructivist approach. Review of Literature Constructivism The constructivist theory to teaching and learning has been broadly addressed in a number of researches in mathematics education (Katic, Hmelo-Silver & Weber, 2009; Steele, 1995).According to this theory, students do not just passively receive information but constantly create new knowledge based on prior knowledge in conjunction with new experiences. As opposed to the traditional approaches where students learn by copying â€Å"word for word† what teachers say, constructivism has shifted to a more radical conception of teaching and learning whereby learners’ fresh ideas are brought to class, acknowledged, and enhanced through a variety of teaching and learning techniques that actively engage them.A number of studies have shown the effectiveness of the constructivist approach in teaching and learning in contrast to the traditional drilling and reciting approach (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Steele, 1995). A study by Steele, (1995) on â€Å"A construct visit Approach to mathematics teaching and learning†¦.. † revealed that using constructivist International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), 139-147 141 learning strategies has positive gains. For example, such strategies tend to create an exciting environment for students to learn mathematics and enhance their self-esteem.According to this study, when students learn to construct their own knowledge, they tend to have control of mathematical concepts and think mathematically. Another study by Katic, Hmelo-Silver & Weber, (2009) on Material Mediation, suggest that materials can help to motivate and mediate the participants’ collaborative problem solving discussions. In this study, Katic, et al. , teachers used a variety of resou rces to solve a mathematics problem and construct explanations about the learning process; they, then, posed questions about the problem to clarify their solutions.This is a method that is encouraged in social theories like constructivism, as it generally assists in keeping the learners on task. Although constructivist learning theory does not tell us how to teach mathematics, a teacher with a constructivist background can facilitate learners’ construction of knowledge by applying different constructivist teaching approaches that are in aligned with this learning theory. This type of mathematics teaching forms the basis of this study.Nevertheless, a number of studies in Botswana on teacher centered versus learner centered approaches have revealed that teacher centered approaches are dominant in Botswana classrooms (Prophet, Rowell, 1993; Republic of Botswana, 1993; Tabulawa, 1997, 1998). For example a study By Tabulawa, (1997), on Pedagogical Classroom Practice†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ has indicated that students in the classrooms have been shown to be passive recipients of knowledge, which means that they are not given the opportunity to construct their own knowledge.The commission on Education (1977) has also highlighted this as a major concern in the education system of Botswana. According to this policy, teachers have a tendency to dominate in the classroom as most of the information transmitted to students is often too abstract and mostly requires them to memorize. This policy in a way was calling for a radical change in the classroom practices to allow for students’ growth through teaching and learning that is learner driven.Tabulawa, (1998) has also indicated a concern on the perceptions that teachers have that influence their classroom practices. In addition, Tabulawa, noted that there are certain factors that influence teachers to be dominant in the classrooms such as â€Å"teachers’ assumptions about the nature of knowledge and the ways it ought to be transmitted and the perceptions of students†. These factors are worrisome as they tend to perpetuate teacher centered approaches as opposed to learner centered practices.The study is out to find out the extent to which teachers apply the constructivist theory of teaching and learning when teaching mathematics. This is a theory that has been proven beyond reasonable doubt to enhance students’ independent learning. Methodology Sampling To address the objective of the study, the researcher used data from Human Research Science Council (HRSC) -Stanford- University of Botswana Regional Education Study that was conducted in 2009/10 as a comparative study on teacher quality and student performance in Botswana and South Africa.Out of 60 sampled schools in Botswana, data was obtained from 58 schools and 64 classrooms (two math classrooms in six of the schools taught by the same teacher in each school). The sample focused on 5 districts in Botswana, namely; low-incom e schools in five districts within 50 kilometers of the South African border, Gaborone (18 schools, 617 students), Kgatleng (16 schools, 495 students), Lobatse (6 schools, 152 students), South East (10 schools, 305 students), and Southern (8 schools, 205 students). InstrumentationData was collected through videotaping 83 standard six mathematics teachers teaching at least one mathematics lesson. More than one-third of the teachers were videotaped twice. The filming was done at the middle and towards the end of the year by trained personnel of the Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 142 Botswana team from the University of Botswana. Teachers whose classes were videotaped were informed in advance about the research team visits. They were further told that the videos will only be used for the study. Data AnalysisThe videotape analysis was also done by well trained personnel from the University of Botswana and the U. S. A. From various video analyses conducted, the levels of cognitive demand we re selected based on the relevance of this paper since the focus was on the thinking process in which the learner was engaged. The ‘level(s) of cognitive demand’ in which learners were engaged in during the lesson were derived from a rubric in Stein et al. ’s (2000) classification of higher and lower cognitive demand. These are: Lower Level Demand 1.Memorization: Memorization recollection of facts, formulae, or definitions 2. Task requires the recall of previously learned material. Or the committing of facts, formulas or definitions to memory. Task cannot be solved using procedures because procedures do not exist or the time frame in which task is to be completed is too short to use a procedure. Tasks involve exact reproduction of previously seen material and what is reproduced is clearly and directly stated. Task has no connection to concept or meaning that underlies the facts, rules, formula, or definition being learned or reproduced.Processes without Connectio ns: Performing algorithmic type of problems and have no connection to the underlying concept or meaning Task is algorithmic. Use of procedures either is specifically stated or its use is evident based on prior instruction, experience, or placement of task. Task leaves little ambiguity about what needs to be done and how to do it. No connection or explanation of the concept is needed. Task focuses on producing correct answers rather than developing mathematical understanding. Higher Level Demand 3.Processes with Connections: Use of procedures with the purpose of developing deeper levels of understanding concepts or ideas Task requires use of procedures to develop deeper understanding of the concept. Task suggests pathways to follow that are broad general procedures rather than algorithms that are opaque with respect to underlying concepts. Tasks are usually represented in multiple ways (e. g. visual diagrams, manipulatives, symbols, problem situations) Connections among the represent ations builds meaning to concept. Tasks require some thinking, although using a procedure t cannot be followed mindlessly. Students need to engage in conceptual ideas to successfully complete the task. Doing Concepts and Processes: Doing mathematics complex and non-algorithmic thinking, students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships Task requires access of relevant knowledge, self-reflection on actions, exploring concepts, processes and relationships in non-algorithmic activity. Task demands self-monitoring or self-regulation of thinking. – 4. – International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012 139-147 (2012), 147 143 –Task requires analysis of constraints that may limit possible solution strategies and solutions. Task is unpredictable due to nature of solution process required. The focus in this component (the levels of cognitive demand) is the thinking processes in cognitive which learners engage in the observed lessons. In a constructivist classroom, learners are expected to think at a very high level, – as they are actively involved in their own learning. Apart from the analysis of the levels of cognitive demand, the data analysis members also s made some observations on how students interacted with the teacher.They made notes on these observations. Findings Levels of cognitive demand in classroom teaching in a sample of Botswana School 90 80 70 Percent of Lessons 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Memorization Procedures without connections Procedures with connections Doing mathematics The findings of the study indicated that 7. 3. 5% of the lessons required learners to recall a fact which in fact is memorization, 85% of the lessons do procedures without connections, and 23% do procedures with connections and only 3% students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships.From the video note observations, the data indicates that in most lessons teachers asked the s tudents questions and allowed the whole class to call out the answers. These findings concur with Arthur’s (1998), that â€Å"I observed many teacher dominated classroom procedures, in teacher-dominated particular lengthy recitations of questions by teacher and answers by individual or whole class† (p. 314). When teachers are the only ones asking questions and students being the s† respondents, learning is no longer centered on the learner but more on the teacher.Discussions From the findings it is evident that teachers used the procedural teaching and students learned by memorizing facts. When learners do the rote learning they are not encouraged to think critically and to construct their own knowledge as the teacher is the one who provides the one content for them. Memorization in Botswana classrooms is very common as evidenced by previous researchers such as Fuller and Snyder (1991), Arthur (1998), Tabulawa (2004, 1998, Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 144 and 1997 ).Arthur and Martin (2006) in their study on comparative classroom teaching and learning found that most teachers in Botswana â€Å"ask low-level factual questions, with few opportunities for pupils†¦learners do not exercise their reasoning powers or imaginations† (p. 195). As data has indicated that lessons were predominately recalling of facts and procedures without any application to real life situations, one may assume that learners were not constructing their own knowledge but were simply spoon-fed by teachers. The National Commission on Education of Botswana (1977) also oncurs with this study that learning is mostly memorizing and recalling of facts which, in a way, does not add any value to the learning process. One of the goals of vision 2016 is for the education system of Botswana to provide quality education that would enable Batswana to adapt to the changing needs of the country as well as the global changes. This vision goal can be achieved if teachers adapt to theories such as constructivism that allow learners to explore and come up with their own solutions to the problems.Memorization and imitating teachers will not give Botswana learners sufficient wisdom to survive independently in this world of socio-political and economic unrest. From the data, one concludes that learners were not given tasks that challenged their thinking and the construction of their own knowledge. Henningsen and Stein (1997) noted that Mathematical tasks are central to students' learning because â€Å"tasks convey messages about what mathematics is and what doing mathematics entails†(NCTM, 1 991, p. 24). The tasks in which students engage provide the contexts in which they learn to think about subject students. p. 525) matter, and different tasks may place differing cognitive demands on Indeed if learners are given tasks that encourage memorization of ideas, according to Stein et al. ’s (2000) levels of cognitive demands, the learners are at the lowest level. In this level students are given formulas to memorize and just follow procedures without making any connections to real life situations. For example, in one of the videos the teacher was teaching the topic â€Å"area†. This is how she taught the lesson; first she asked the learners the meaning of the word area.Learners could not define the word, and instead of the teacher defining it, she gave the learners the formula for solving the area of a square. She then drew some shapes on the board, solved one as an example and then asked the learners to use the formula to find areas of the rest shapes. Indeed using the formula given, most learners were able to find the areas of the shapes drawn by their teacher. But can the learners apply the idea to real life? The procedure may be correct. However, did the learners make any connections to real life?From the analysis of the data it is evident that most tasks given to the learners only concentrated on the low levels of c ognitive demand. The task focused on producing correct answers rather than developing mathematical understanding. Various reasons such as examination driven curriculum may have contributed to Botswana teachers delivering facts (giving lower level tasks) to learners rather than allowing learners to think and construct their own knowledge. The centralized curriculum as well as examinations does contribute to teacher-domination as teachers are more concerned with completion of the syllabus at a given period.Arthur and Martin (2006) acknowledged that â€Å"pupils examination success provides access to further education in Botswana† (p. 192) forcing teachers to rush through the syllabus. This has also been confirmed by Tabulawa, (1998), that teachers’ perceptions of students and the goals of schooling have a direct influence in the way teachers teach because teachers see themselves as the main transmitters of knowledge, while students are passive recipients who must memoriz e and produce during examinations.Another reason may be the large numbers of teacher to students’ ratio which then encourages delivering of facts rather than allowing learners to construct their own knowledge. In a constructivist learning environment, learners learn best by discovering their own knowledge. Teachers encourage higher – level thinking so that students can reach beyond the simple factual response. Moreover, in a constructivist classroom, learners are encouraged to summarize concepts by analyzing, predicting, justifying, and defending their ideas.Cobb (1999) noted that â€Å"constructivist learning theory predicts that knowledge encoded from data by learners themselves will be more flexible, transferable, and useful than knowledge encoded for them by experts and transmitted to them by an instructor or other delivery agent† (p. 15). International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), 139-147 145 In constructivism knowledge co nstruction is emphasized rather than knowledge reproduction. Knowledge construction helps the learners to remember what they have learned.The second highest level of cognitive demand encourages ‘use of procedures with the purpose of developing deeper levels of understanding concepts or ideas’. For learners to master the content, constructivist believe that higher order thinking skills and deeper understanding should be emphasized in the learning environment. Learners develop into critical thinkers if they are actively involved in the learning process and are encouraged to apply the concepts to real life situation. By this, learners are making meaningful connections.Learners can use their experiences to construct new information if given the opportunity to practice in the teaching/learning environment rather than having facts poured into them by the one in authority. The role of the teacher is to serve as a facilitator. The highest level of cognitive demand calls for doi ng mathematics complex and nonalgorithmic thinking, students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships. Tasks that learners are supposed to be engaged in should help them explore the relationship between concepts they are learning and reality.For, example, if learners are doing ‘area’ as a topic of study, let them explore the idea and find out how the topic can be applied in real life situations. Teachers should provide tasks that will lead the learners to explore, discover, and apply the concepts. Richard cited by Simon (1995) noted that It is necessary [for t he mathematics teacher] to provide a structure and a set of plans that support the development of informed exploration and reflective inquiry without taking initiative or control away from the student. The teacher must design tasks and projects that stimulate student to ask questions pose, problems, and set goals.Students will not become active learners by accident but by design through the use of the plans that we structure to guide exploration and inquiry. (118) It is, therefore, the responsibility of every teacher to plan activities that require high level of cognitive demand. It is important to note that high levels of cognitive demand require students to use their prior knowledge as advocated by the constructivists. Henningsen and Stein (1997) contended that â€Å"connections with what students already know and understand also play an important role in engaging students in high-level thought processes† (p. 27). For students to perform tasks that require critical thinking and applying of concepts, experience or prior knowledge used as a base is crucial. The findings in this study indicate that teachers did not engage the learners on tasks that required them to use higher levels of cognitive demand. These findings concur with what Prophet and Rowell cited by Fuller and Snyder (1991) that teachers in Botswana classrooms â€Å"ask for factual information through sentence completion exercise with pupils individual or in chorus simply adding the missing word.Students are rarely asked to explain the process or the interrelation between two or more event† (p. 276). This is a clear indication that teachers in Botswana classroom give learners tasks that are mostly associated with the low level of cognitive demand of which the constructivist theory does not encourage. The theory of constructivism also values the uniqueness of every learner. Students learn differently. The teacher, as the facilitator, should appreciate every learner’s strengths and weaknesses. Each learner should be given the opportunity to construct knowledge from his/her own experiences.Summary DeVries, Zan, Hildebrandt, Edmiaston, and Sales ( 2002) asserted that â€Å"teacherswho have been accustomed to teaching by telling and directing children’s work must shift from seeing themselves as central in producing learning to seeing thechild as centralâ⠂¬ (p. 36). From the study one concluded that there was a lot of spoon-feeding in most classes. Students were not given tasks that encouraged them to be doers and thinkers of mathematics, but rather to be consumers of mathematics concepts. Knowledge construction was very limited in most classes making learning more teacher-centered.Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 146 The continued teacher domination in the Botswana teaching/learning environment will result in learners who cannot think deeply and critically. Knowledge is not passively received, but actively built up by the learners. 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